Inequality and Organizational Practice: Volume II: Employment Relations (Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma)

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background Authors: Stefanos Nachmias and Valerie Caven Context: The aims of this chapter is to identify key elements of the second volume and highlight the main areas for investigation. Chapter 2: Diversity and Equality issues in modern organisation Author(s): Stefanos Nachmias and Valerie Caven Context: This chapter provides a critical evaluation of key issues in diversity and equality, an exploration of the historical developments in the subject and an assessment of current issues that modern organisation face in relation to managing differences. It offers a critical discussion on how diversity management has evolved and developed, and the role of equal opportunities perspective in establishing current thinking. Chapter 3: Diversity training and learning in modern organisation Author(s): Stefanos Nachmias, Valerie Caven and Fotios Mitsakis Context: This chapter provides a discussion of key diversity training interventions, and the role of learning in changing individual and management attitudes. It offers a critical insight into various tools and how organisations can address hidden inequalities in the workplace. Chapter 4: Age Discrimination and silenced inequalities Author(s): Ning Wu Context: Age discrimination is multi-faceted and complex and policy interventions have only partial effects (Urwin 2004). Given the deeply rooted nature of age discrimination in society, coupled with that perceived discriminatory treatment may lead to negative affective and calculative responses (Gutek et al, 1996), it is important to understand how age discrimination is at play and unfair treatment ensued. Findings from the literature review of publications of age discrimination will inform management practice and feed into policy development in relation to developing new talent pool and retaining valued and experienced workers of various age. This chapter investigates the hidden nature of age discrimination from four perspectives: age-related gender inequalities, age-related pay differentials, age-related job quality, and age-related employability. First, from an intersectionality perspective, young professional women tend to view gender inequality as an issue that belongs to older generations; they presume organizations are based on ability and talent and that any residues of gender inequality are due to choice (Broadbridge and Simpson, 2011; Dunkley, 2010). Second, while a few employers hire young workers as cheap labour (Heys, 2007), others are more likely to be concerned with the competitiveness of their wage offers and have less scope to pay young workers lower wages than those paid to older workers (Adam-Smith et al., 2003). Empirical evidence also suggests that the ageing effect on wages decreases as workers age (Lazear, 1976, 557-558); instead, years of work experience matter more after certain age (25 years old in the study). Third, numerical flexibility is more likely to be encountered in the later phases of an individual's working life when her/his bargaining position is weaker (Urwin, 2004), and such arrangements are often available in the low-end service sector (Sargeant, 2001, 114). Older workers in financial need are 'doubly disadvantaged' in not having access to decent pensions, and in having to compete with younger labour market entrants for poorly paid jobs (Taylor, 1994). Finally, while young people experience employment discrimination such as being seen as untrust-worthy (Loretto, Duncan and White, 2000), older workers are discouraged from following job leads in that they are 'over-qualified' or 'over-experienced' (Shen and Kleiner, 2001) and they are likely to be placed in redundancy situations (Johnson and Neumark, 1997; Walker 2005). The genuineness of recent anti-age-discrimination agenda has also been challenged for the reasons of labour shortages and a desire to cut social spending (Chou and Chow, 2005, 234-235; Garstka et al., 2005, 321). Chapter 5: Hidden care(e)rs: supporting informal carers in the workplace Author: Louise Oldridge Context: The UK has an ageing population; people are not only living longer, but doing so with health problems. The government has been investing less in adult social care and a consultation on social care reform is now not expected until 2018 (Green, 2017). This has resulted in an ever-increasing, and unrecognised, reliance on care provided on an informal basis, by friends and family. Census records show that the highest provision of care is provided by mid-life women (aged 50 - 64), with one in four women of this age self-identifying as a carer (ONS, 2011). Yet, not all those providing care are comfortable with the term 'carer', and would not identify as such (O'Connor, 2007), meaning this number could be even greater. One in nine people in the workforce are reported to be carers (Carers UK, 2017), with 13.3 per cent of employed women overall combining work and care (ONS, 2011). Previous research has demonstrated that carers may reduce the number of hours they work, levels of responsibility or even leave their jobs entirely (Carers UK, 2017; Walters, 2008; Yeandle et al., 2007). This chapter offers an examination of existing legislation and literature on supporting carers who combine caring and working. It will also review findings from interviews conducted in 2016 with 30 women aged 45 - 65 across Leicestershire who combined work and care, with reference to organisational and line manager support. This is particularly significant given the large quantities of mid-life women caring, alongside careers commentary seeing women of this age at their professional peak, and the government keen to encourage older workers to remain active in the labour market (Kirton and Greene, 2016). The chapter is relevant to both academic and practitioner audiences and concludes that current practices provide insufficient support and contribute to the ongoing factor of caring as a hidden inequality in the workplace. As a result, it closes with recommendations for employers and policy makers. Chapter 6: The quality of part- time work among men in the UK Author(s): Amanda Thompson and Daniel Wheatley Context: This chapter offers a critical insight to meet the element of the call concerned with nuanced issues that individuals face within the key protected characteristics. The chapter concerns subtleties in relation to the quality of part- time work among men and men's uptake of part-time work. In addition to the key dimension of gender, age and life circumstances such as marriage, health and care commitments are considered as critical variables affecting men's participation in, and experiences of, part-time work. Despite the growing flexibility of paid work, working part-time remains a marginal form of employment for the majority of men. The chapter focuses on the quality of work among men working part-time. Using UK data from wave 2 (2010-11) and 4 (2012-13) of Understanding Society, plus extracts from WERS 2011 we depict patterns of part-time work among men. Analysis is conducted to consider the association between part-time work and job quality measures (levels of autonomy, informal flexibility, and job satisfaction), and wider measures of subjective well-being: men's satisfaction with leisure time and life overall. Consistent with Delson (1998), we find men are likely to work part-time when they are young or when they are older whilst men aged 30-39 and 40-49 are least likely to work part-time. Married men are less likely to work part-time, however number of children is positively associated with working part-time among men and women. In common with female part-time workers, male part-time workers tend to carry out more housework and care than those who work full-time and male and female part-time workers are more likely to possess a disability or long-term illness. Male part-time workers are present across a range of occupational groups, however part-time work is least prevalent in highly skilled occupations. Regarding quality of work, levels of informal flexibility are likely to be either higher or low compared to full-time workers, reflective of the dichotomy between 'optimal' part-time work, more often present in highly skilled occupations, and low quality part-time work in lower skilled occupations. Across the spectra of occupations, age and gender, part-time work is associated with lower levels of pay and lower levels of autonomy compared with full-time work. The findings are likely to be of interest to organizations seeking to recruit and retain part-time workers, especially those operating in sectors where part-time working is an embedded work pattern. The findings support calls for improved quality of part-time jobs for both men and women. Chapter 7: Identifying and addressing hidden structural and cultural inequalities in the workplace Author(s): Evanthia Kalpazidou Context: Recent literature reveals how a complex set of hidden factors of different nature and depth interact in the workplace and produce negative effects as to gender equality. The same literature underlines also the complexity in addressing hidden gender inequality in the workplace of research organisations (Kalpazidou, Schmidt and Cacace, 2017). Scholars (Timmers et al., 2010) and practitioners therefore emphasise the importance of research into structural and cultural inequalities and development of evidence-based concrete strategies to address them. Yet, hidden, deeply rooted structural and cultural gender inequalities in research organisations is an understudied area. In particular, insights on concrete actions and how to effectively address hidden structural barriers is highly required to avoid marginalising inequality issues (Bailyn and Fletcher, 2007; Nielsen, 2015). Based on two European projects (one on studies of gender equality interventions in more than 100 research organisations worldwide and another on action research carried out in five research institutions in different countries in Europe), this chapter points to the structural and cultural inequalities, which are typically subtle and difficult to grasp. It offers an understanding of organizational practices to mitigate social exclusion, addressing resistances and discrimination of women in the workplace. Hence, it presents principles and lines of actions that can be applied in research organisations to support efforts oriented towards gender equality. The chapter contributes to the limited literature on cultural and structural gender equality challenges in the workplace by mapping existing hidden, deeply rooted systemic inequalities, and suggesting how to address them in complex organisations. More specifically, it shows which concrete strategies and actions are effective in achieving sustainable structural and cultural changes. A number of recommendations are presented in broad fields of action (organisational and managerial domains; culture and values; networking and empowering women; visibility and monitoring of inequalities). The chapter offers insights in structural changes for researchers, practitioners and policy makers. Chapter 8: Employee silence and voice at work Author(s): Konstantina Kougiannou Context: This conceptual chapter explores the role of employee silence and voice in addressing hidden inequalities at work. The concepts of 'employee silence' and 'employee voice' are used as they can facilitate an understanding of the way in which employees respond to workplace problems, as well as their capacity to respond (Good and Cooper, 2014). Defining silence as an employee's 'motivation to withhold or express ideas, information and opinions' (Dyne et al., 2003: 1361) about work and workplace issues, in this chapter we will examine when and how employees in organisational settings exercise voice and when and how they opt for silence (Milliken et al., 2003). Under what conditions would employees articulate voice, revealing issues of hidden inequalities at work and under what conditions will they opt for silence? Why would employees make the decision to be silent and what types of issues would they be most likely to be silent about? How could organisations overcome this problem? Additionally, we will explore the role of managers in structuring employee silence. Management, through practices and institutional structures can perpetuate silence over a range of issues, thereby organising employees out of the voice process. Research so far has focused on silence as something which employees choose, thereby overlooking constraints to voice that might be imposed by management in preserving their prerogative (Donaghey et al., 2011). Any inequality in the workplace can lead to separation and isolation from the mainstream workforce and this can influence affected employees' voice and silence in the workplace (McFadden and Crowley-Henry, 2017). On the other hand, opportunities to exercise voice, with transparent and fair mechanisms can reveal a range of issues at work, from sexual harassment to any non-declared physical or psychological condition that otherwise can remain hidden. This can be a first step in addressing inequality in the workplace. Implications for theory and practice will be discussed. Chapter 9: Hidden relations amongst management decisions and employee engagement Author(s): Sarah Pass Context: The MacLeod Review (2009) propelled the concept of employee engagement into the consciousness of organisations globally. Findings from the review highlighted the positive links between employee engagement and organisational outcomes. The review also emphasised the high number of disengaged employees working in the United Kingdom (UK). Although the issue of disengagement is clearly a significant problem, we know little about what factors lead to disengagement. This chapter provides an evaluation on how current management decisions generates disengagement, and hidden employee withdrawal for the employment relations. It seeks to evaluate perceptions of discrimination and incivility, and considers the role the management plays in this equation. Chapter 10: Formalised business and the hidden aspects of the employment practice Author(s): Ian Clark Context: The chapter explores how organizations that utilise formalized business and employment practice 'create' a market for informalized business and employment practice. Specifically the manner in which formalized and re-skilled HR departments look to create value for owners and shareholders by utilising agency labour, down-sizing, out-sourcing, self-employment status and how more recently new firms in the 'gig economy' or platforms seek to externalize employment by denying they are in fact an organization or an employer. These developments are interesting in themselves but more significantly they are re-produced in organizations that use informal business and employment practice but often on the basis of non-compliance and precarious unlawful practices for vulnerable workers. Essentially, the innovation in the argument is that what goes on the informal economy is actually derived from practices developed in the formal economy and that the two are not separate entities. Chapter 11: Hidden inequalities amongst international workforce Authors: Gaye zelik, Washika Haak-Saheem, Chris Brewster and Yvonne McNulty Context: High-status, high-skilled expatriates have been the focus of most of the international human resource management (IHRM) literature that has provided rich insights into the management of internationally mobile members of the global workforce (e.g., Adler, 2002; Hechanova, Beehr and Christiansen, 2003; Tung, 1998). But there are many low status expatriates and other members of the international workforce who have been largely 'hidden' from managerial scholarship or 'outsourced' to other disciplines (Haak-Saheem and Brewster, 2017). They are 'hidden' because they are ignored by the migrant literature which looks at people trying to remain in their new society and gain citizenship, and ignored by the expatriation literature which is only concerned with top talent. The people we are looking at are maids, drivers, security people, construction workers - low status and low paid, unable to get citizenship and liable to be sent back at the whim of their employer. If we, as scholars, are to contribute to the betterment of society by elevating the health and well-being of those who live in it, then we have to recognise the existence of and address the management issues and concerns of those at the 'bottom of the pyramid' (Connell and Burgess, 2013; Simanis, 2012), including those who have been defined out of the subject matter of management scholars, despite their being the largest group of the international workforce. We draw on cases from Turkey, Singapore and the Middle East to examine the position, the concerns and the issues of such workers and their place in the workforce. Chapter 12: Hidden inequalities of globally mobile workforce Author(s): Konstantina Kougiannou and Maranda Ridgway Context: The topic of international migration has gained increasing importance for organizations as they expand internationally (Guo and Al Ariss, 2015). At the organizational level, skilled migrants are considered an important part of the global talent pool, contributing to the competitive advantage of global organizations (Guo and Al Ariss, 2015). Despite the importance of international migrants for organizations and the host countries, the challenges of inequality, both visible and hidden, that this group of individuals might face could affect their employment and development, yet remains under-researched. Research has examined inequality of working conditions to the benefit of expatriates (in comparison to host country nationals' working conditions) (Oltra et al., 2013), however an examination of inequalities faced by expatriates is more rare, with some exceptions (e.g. Ridgway, 2018). This chapter explores how culture and trust can influence perceptions of inequality as experienced by expatriates. Social exchange theory and notions of culture will be used to explore the potential effects of trust perceptions on expatriates' attitudes and behaviours. For example, what kind of managerial and organizational practices would expatriates identify as trustworthy in terms of addressing potential social exclusion, cross-cultural discrimination and any other anticipated inequalities at the host country? We posit that the more trustworthy equal opportunities (EO) and diversity management (DM) policies are in the host country and the more a culture is characterised as inclusive, the more inclined expatriates will be in accepting an assignment. With regard to the differentiation between expatriate types, we will also explore and compare potential differences between company-backed and self-initiated expatriates, given the diverse motives (Doherty et al., 2011). We follow Howe-Walsh and Schyns (2010) in arguing that organizations, in order to appear trustworthy, should evaluate whether current EO and DM practices effectively address social exclusion and cultural discrimination in the host country, thus enhancing (or hindering) expatriates' successful employment. Implications for future research and practice will also be discussed. Chapter 13: Expatriation and incapacity created by a multitude of hidden equalities Authors: Christine Mortimer Context: This chapter use Julia Kristeva's theory of abjection to consider how expatriation can affect the employees work performance (Marvin and Grandy, 2016; Fotaki, 2013: Tyler, 2009). This offers an alternative perspective on expats and the issues they face when moving abroad to work in a 'UK environment positioned abroad', specifically in China. It will provide HR personnel with alternative ways of identify how individuals create marginalisation themselves due to the variety of cultural contexts in which they are operating. This creates a 'zone of inhabitability' (Fokati, Long and Schwartz, 2012) for those staff that are expatriates. The data has been collected within an immersive ethnographic study (Cresswell, 2014: Wolcott, 2008) over a period of a year in a UK run University College which forms part of a Chinese University on Mainland China. The collaboration is unique within China. The ability of UK based Academics to function within these types of collaborative partnerships is becoming an important part of the UK Universities internationalisation agenda. The study has identified three hidden cultures within these types of institution, creating a variety of inequalities contributing to a 'zone of inhabitability' for those people who work within them.